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Automatic processing CHAPtER 7 MeMory 181
Attention to important Rehearsal and active
Sensory input or novel information maintenance
Encoding
External Sensory Working/short- Long-term
event memory term memory memory storage
Encoding Retrieving
FIGURE 7.2 A modified three- stage information- processing model of memory Atkinson and Shiffrin’s classic three- stage model helps us to think
about how memories are processed, but researchers now recognize other ways that long- term memories form. For example, some information slips into long- term
memory via a “back door,” without our consciously attending to it (automatic processing). And so much active processing occurs in the short- term memory stage that
we now call it working memory.

memories. This “system for holding REtRIEVE REMEMBER Our two- track mind, then, helps us
information in mind and working on it” encode, store, and retrieve information
(Oberauer et al., 2018) also retrieves and pro- ANSWERS IN APPENDIX F through both automatic and effortful
cesses previously stored information. 1. How does the working memory concept tracks. Let’s see how automatic pro-
update the classic Atkinson- Shiffrin three-
Integrating these memory inputs with stage information- processing model? cessing assists the formation of implicit
your existing long- term memory requires 2. What are two basic functions of working memories.
focused attention. Without focused atten- memory?
tion, information typically fades. If you memory the persistence of learning over
think you can look something up later, time through the encoding, storage, and
you attend to it less and forget it more For a 14-minute explanation retrieval of information.
quickly. In one experiment, people read and demonstration of our memory systems, see the encoding the process of getting information
and typed new information they would Video: Models of Memory. into the memory system.
later need, such as “An ostrich’s eye is big-
ger than its brain.” If they knew the infor- storage the process of retaining encoded
information over time.
mation would be available online, they Building Memories:
invested less energy in remembering it, retrieval the process of getting information
out of memory storage.
and they remembered it less well (Wegner & Encoding
Ward, 2013). Online, out of mind. sensory memory the immediate, very
Right now, your working memory is OUR TWO- TRACK MEMORY brief recording of sensory information in
the memory system.
actively linking what you’re reading with SYSTEM
what you already know (Cowan, 2010, 2016; short- term memory briefly activated
memory of a few items (such as digits of
deBettencourt et al., 2019). If you hear “eye- LOQ 7-3 How do implicit and explicit a phone number while calling) that is later
screem,” you may encode it as ice cream memories differ? stored or forgotten.
or as I scream, depending on both your As we have seen throughout this text, long- term memory the relatively
experience and the context (snack shop our mind operates on two tracks. This permanent and limitless archive of the
or horror film). theme appears again in the way we pro- memory system. Includes knowledge,
Cultural traditions influence how we cess memories: skills, and experiences.
encode and retrieve information (Wang, working memory a newer under-
2021). For many of you, what you are read- • On one track, information skips standing of short- term memory; conscious,
ing enters your working memory through the Atkinson- Shiffrin stages and active processing of both (1) incoming
vision. You may also repeat the information barges directly into storage, without sensory information and (2) information
using auditory rehearsal. Some groups, such our awareness. These implicit (non- retrieved from long- term memory.
as Inuit in northern Canada, use repeated declarative) memories form without our implicit memory retention of learned
oral histories to help younger group mem- conscious effort. Implicit memories, skills, or classically conditioned associations,
without conscious awareness. (Also called
bers remember important information. In formed through automatic processing, nondeclarative memory.)
one dramatic case, repeated information bypass the conscious encoding track.
that had been passed down through many • On the second track, we process our automatic processing unconscious
encoding of everyday information, such as
generations was crucial to the archeologi- explicit (declarative) memories of space, time, and frequency, and of familiar
cal discovery of the doomed ships of the the facts and experiences we can or well- learned information, such as
1845 Franklin Expedition, which sank near consciously know and “declare.” sounds, smells, and word meanings.
where local Inuit lived (Neatby & Mercer, 2018). We encode many explicit memories explicit memory retention of facts
Whether we soak up information with our through conscious, effortful and personal events you can consciously
eyes or our ears, working memory helps us processing. The Atkinson- Shiffrin retrieve. (Also called declarative memory.)
integrate our previous experiences to make model helps us understand how this effortful processing encoding that
smart decisions. memory track operates (Figure 7.2). requires attention and conscious effort.

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