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For 3 or 4 hours, they experience high energy, emotional elevation, and (given a social
context) connectedness with those around them (“I love everyone”). Octopuses became
similarly sociable when researchers gave them MDMA ( Edsinger et al., 2018 ). Eight
arms and MDMA = a lot of reaching out.
Ecstasy’s popularity first soared globally in the late 1990s as a “club drug” taken at
nightclubs and all-night dance parties ( Landry, 2002 ). But there are good reasons not to
be ecstatic about Ecstasy. One is its dehydrating effect, which — when combined with pro-
longed dancing — can lead to severe overheating, increased blood pressure, and death.
Another is that repeated leaching of brain serotonin can damage serotonin-producing neu-
rons, leading to decreased output and increased risk of permanently depressed mood ( Croft
et al., 2001 ; McCann et al., 2001 ; Roiser et al., 2005 ). Ecstasy also suppresses the immune
Distributed by Bedford, Freeman & Worth Publishers. Not for redistribution.
system, impairs memory, slows thought, and disrupts sleep by interfering with serotonin’s
control of the circadian clock ( Laws & Kokkalis, 2007 ; Schilt et al., 2007 ; Wagner et al., 2012 ).
Ecstasy delights for the night but dispirits the morrow.

Hallucinogens

What ar
1.3-8
1.3-8 What are hallucinogens, and what are their effects?

and
what

hallucinogens,

ef
fects?
their
ar
e

What ar
What ar

e
hallucinogens,
e
e

Hallucinogens distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory
input (which is why these drugs are also called psychedelics, meaning “mind-manifesting”).
Some, such as LSD and MDMA (Ecstasy), are synthetic. Others, including psilocybin, aya-
huasca, and the mild hallucinogen marijuana, are natural substances.
Whether provoked to hallucinate by drugs, loss of oxygen, or extreme sensory
deprivation, the brain hallucinates in basically the same way ( Martial et al., 2019 ; Siegel,
hallucinogens psychedelic
1982 ). The experience typically begins with simple geometric forms, such as a spiral.
(“mind-manifesting”) drugs that Copyright © Bedford, Freeman & Worth Publishers.
distort perceptions and evoke Then come more meaningful images, which may be superimposed on a tunnel; others
sensory images in the absence of may be replays of past emotional experiences. Brain scans of people on an LSD trip
sensory input. reveal that their visual cortex becomes hypersensitive and strongly connected to their
near-death experience an brain’s emotion centers ( Carhart-Harris et al., 2016 ). As the hallucination peaks, peo-
altered state of consciousness ple frequently feel separated from their body and experience dreamlike scenes. Their
reported after a close brush with sense of self dissolves, as does the border between themselves and the external world
death (such as cardiac arrest);
often similar to drug-induced ( Lebedev et al., 2015 ).
,

hallucinations. These sensations are strikingly similar to the near-death experience an altered
state of consciousness reported by 10 to 23 percent of people revived from cardiac arrest
( Martial et al., 2020 ). Many describe visions
of tunnels ( Figure 1.3-10 ), bright lights, a

Figure 1.3-10 replay of old memories, and out-of-body
Near-death vision or sensations ( Siegel, 1980 ). These experiences
hallucination? can later enhance spirituality and promote
Psychologist Ronald Siegel (1977) feelings of personal growth ( Khanna &
reported that people under the
influence of hallucinogenic drugs Greyson , 2014 , 2015 ). Given that oxygen
often see “a bright light in the deprivation and other insults to the brain
center of the field of vision. . . . are known to produce hallucinations, we
The location of this point of may wonder: Does a brain under stress
light create[s] a tunnel-like
perspective.” This is very similar to manufacture the near-death experience?
NUMAX3D/Shutterstock people may experience similar hallucina-
others’ near-death experiences. During epileptic seizures and migraines,
tions of geometric patterns ( Billock & Tsou,
2012 ). So have solitary sailors and polar
50 Unit 1 Biological Bases of Behavior
03_myersAPpsychology4e_28116_ch01_002_163.indd 50 15/12/23 9:22 AM