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266 PART 3 REVOLUTION AND REPUBLICAN CULTURE, 1754%u20131800be divided among individual Native American families, who would then become citizens of the various states. Native Americans resisted both forms of domination and fought to retain control of their lands and cultures. In the ensuing struggle, the United States emerged as an expansive power, determined to control the future of the continent.Sham Treaties and Native American LandsAs in the past, conflicts between Native Americans and Europeans centered on land rights. Invoking the Paris treaty and regarding Britain%u2019s Indigenous allies as conquered peoples, the U.S. government asserted both sovereignty over and ownership of the trans-Appalachian west. Native American nations rejected both claims, pointing out they had not been conquered and had not signed the Paris treaty. %u201cOur lands are our life and our breath,%u201d declared Creek chief Hallowing King; %u201cif we part with them, we part with our blood.%u201d Brushing aside such objections and threatening military action, U.S. commissioners forced the pro-British Haudenosaunee nations%u2014Mohawks, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas%u2014to cede huge tracts in New York and Pennsylvania in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784). New York land speculators used liquor and bribes to take a million more acres, confining the once powerful Haudenosaunees to reservations%u2014essentially colonies of subordinate peoples.American negotiators used similar tactics to grab Ohio Valley lands. At the Treaties of Fort McIntosh (1785) and Fort Finney (1786), they pushed the Ojibwes, Delawares, Odawas, Wyandots, and Shawnees to cede most of the future state of Ohio. The Indigenous nations quickly repudiated the agreements, justifiably claiming they were made under duress. Recognizing the failure of these agreements, American negotiators arranged for a comprehensive agreement at Fort Harmar (1789), but many Native American leaders refused to attend, and it, too, was repudiated. To defend their lands, these nations joined with the Miamis and Potawatomis to form the Western Confederacy. Led by Miami chief Little Turtle, confederacy warriors crushed American expeditionary forces sent by President Washington in 1790 and 1791.The Treaty of Greenville Fearing an alliance between the Western Confederacy and the British in Canada, Washington doubled the size of the U.S. Army and ordered General %u201cMad Anthony%u201d Wayne to lead a new expedition. In August 1794, Wayne defeated the confederacy in the Battle of Fallen Timbers (near present-day Toledo, Ohio). However, continuing Native American resistance forced a compromise. In the Treaty of Greenville(1795), American negotiators acknowledged Indigenous ownership of the land, and, in return for various payments, the Western Confederacy ceded most of Ohio (Map%u00a0 7.2). The Native American parties to the treaty also agreed to accept American sovereignty, placing themselves %u201cunder the protection of the United States, and no other Power whatever.%u201d These American advances exam tipAs you read through this section, compare the relationship between the new U.S. government and Native Americans to earlier periods of interaction between Europeans and Native Americans.Treaty of GreenvilleA 1795 treaty between the United States and various Native American nations in Ohio. American negotiators acknowledged Indigenous ownership of the land, and, in return for various payments, the Western Confederacy ceded most of Ohio to the United States.gD 7iHTV.AAM7LM .TLo iNeKBefore 17841784%u20131820After 1820BattleFortTreaty of Paris,1783GreenvilleTreaty, 1795Native AmericanCessions0 250 500 kilometers0 5 250 00 milesNSE WFt. MichilimackinacFt. DetroitFt. NiagaraTippecanoe1811Harmar's Defeat1790Fallen Timbers1794St. Clair'sDefeat1791HorseshoeBend1814Ft. StanwixATLANTICOCEANGulf of MexicoMississippi R.Ohio R.Tennessee R.L. SuperiorL. MichiganL. Huron L. ErieL. OntarioMissouri R.MAINE1820VT.N.H.N.Y.MASS.PA. CONN.R.I.VA.KY.1792UPPERCANADALOWERCANADAMEXICOIND.1816MICH.1837ILL.1818N.C.S.C.GA.L OU I S I ANATENN.1796MISS.1817ALA.1819LA.1812ARK.1836To U.S. fromBritain byTreaty of 1818MO.1821Red RiverBasinOHIO1803MD.N.J.DEL.DAKOTA(SIOUX)IOWAPAWNEEARAPAHOOSAGEQUAPAW iWICHITACADDO NATCHEZCHOCTAWILLINOISKICKAPOOSAUKFOXPOTAWATOMIDELAWARECHICKAASAWMUSCOGEETIMUCUASEMINOLEMOBILEHsOH -CHUNKNMIAMISHAWNEEYUCHICHEROKEESt. LouisNew OrleansNatchezLexingtonamerhistoryHS11e_07_m02Native American Cessions24p8 x 26p6First Proof02/15/24MAP 7.2 Native American Land Cessions and State Formation, 1776%u20131840 By virtue of the Treaty of Paris (1783) with Britain, the United States claimed sovereignty over the entire trans-Appalachian west. The Western Confederacy contested this claim, but the U.S. government upheld it with military force. By 1840, armed diplomacy had forced most Native American peoples to move west of the Mississippi River. White settlers occupied their lands, formed territorial governments, and eventually entered the Union as members of separate%u2014and equal%u2014states. By 1860, the trans-Appalachian region constituted an important economic and political force in American national life.%u00a9 Bedford, Freeman & Worth Publishers. For review purposes only. Do not distribute.