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56 CHAPTER 2 | European Society in the Renaissance 1350–1550

least substantial payments. Particularly in Italian cit-
ies, however, which often were divided by political fac-
tions, taken over by homegrown or regional despots,
and attacked by foreign armies, such ideal rulers were
hard to find. Humanists thus looked to the classical
past for their models. Some, such as Bruni, argued
that republicanism was the best form of government.
Others used the model of Plato’s philosopher-king in
the Republic to argue that rule by an enlightened indi-
vidual might be best. Both sides agreed that educated
men should be active in the political affairs of their
city, a position historians have since termed “civic
humanism.”
The most famous (or infamous) civic humanist,
and ultimately the best-known political theorist of
Uncorrected proofs have been used in this sample.
this era, was Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527). After
Copyright © Bedford, Freeman & Worth Publishers.
the ouster of the Medici with the French invasion of
Distributed by Bedford, Freeman & Worth Publishers.
1494, Machiavelli was secretary to one of the govern-
ing bodies in the city of Florence; he was responsible
for diplomatic missions and organizing a citizen army.
For review purposes only. Not for redistribution.
Almost two decades later, power struggles in Florence
between rival factions brought the Medici family back
to power, and Machiavelli was arrested, tortured, and
imprisoned on suspicion of plotting against them. He
was released but had no government position, and
he spent the rest of his life writing — political theory,
poetry, prose works, plays, and a multivolume history
of Florence — and making fruitless attempts to regain
employment.
Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione In this portrait by The first work Machiavelli finished — though not
Raphael, the most sought-after portrait painter of the the first to be published — is his most famous: The
Renaissance, Castiglione is shown dressed exactly as he Prince (1513), which uses the examples of classical
advised courtiers to dress, in elegant but subdued cloth-
ing that would enhance the splendor of the court but and contemporary rulers to argue that the function of
never outshine the ruler. (Art Media/Print Collector/Getty Images) a ruler (or any government) is to preserve order and
security. Weakness only leads to disorder, which might
end in civil war or conquest by an outsider, situations
affability, and modesty were also important qualities clearly detrimental to any people’s well-being. To pre-
for court ladies. serve the state, a ruler should use whatever means he
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries The needs — brutality, lying, manipulation — but should
Courtier was translated into most European languages not do anything that would make the populace turn
and widely read. It influenced the social mores and against him; stealing or cruel actions done for a ruler’s
patterns of conduct of elite groups in Renaissance own pleasure would lead to resentment and destroy
and early modern Europe and became a how-to man- the popular support needed for a strong, stable realm.
ual for people seeking to improve themselves and rise “It is much safer for the prince to be feared than
in the social hierarchy. Echoes of its ideal for women loved,” Machiavelli advised, “but he ought to avoid
have perhaps had an even longer life. making himself hated.” 3
Like the good humanist he was, Machiavelli
Political Thought knew that effective rulers exhibited the quality of
virtù. He presented examples from the classical past
Ideal courtiers should preferably serve an ideal ruler, of just the type of ruler he was describing, but also
and biographies written by humanists often described wrote about contemporary leaders. Cesare Bor-
rulers who were just, wise, pious, dignified, learned, gia (1475?–1507), Machiavelli’s primary example,
brave, kind, and distinguished. In return for such was the son of Rodrigo Borgia, a Spanish noble-
flattering portraits of living rulers or their ancestors, man who later became Pope Alexander VI. Cesare
authors sometimes received positions at court, or at Borgia combined his father’s power and his own

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