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Arguments developed inductively can never be said to be unequivocally true or false,
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right or wrong, because drawing a conclusion based on specific instances can only pre-
dict, not prove. Thus, an inductive argument can sometimes be vulnerable — in particu-
lar, when there is an exception to the rule.
Let’s consider an example from politics. An argument written in favor of a certain
Argument
political candidate might be organized inductively around reasons that she is the best
qualified person for the job because of her views on military spending, financial aid for
college students, and states’ rights. However, the argument is vulnerable to an objection
that her views on, for instance, the death penalty or environmental issues weaken her
qualifications. Essentially, an argument structured inductively cannot lead to certainty,
only to probability.

Deduction
Deduction moves in the opposite direction — from a general statement to a specific
conclusion:

MAJOR PREMISE Exercise promotes better health.
MINOR PREMISE Swimming is exercise.
CONCLUSION Swimming promotes better health.

When you argue deductively, you reach a conclusion by starting with a general principle
or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise).
Deductive reasoning is often structured as a syllogism, a logical structure that uses the
major premise and minor premise to reach a logical conclusion.
The strength of deductive logic is that if the first two premises are true, then the con-
clusion is logically valid. Keep in mind, though, that if either premise is false (or question-
able in any way), then the conclusion is subject to challenge. Consider the following:

MAJOR PREMISE Celebrities are role models for young people.
MINOR PREMISE Kim Kardashian is a celebrity.
CONCLUSION Kim Kardashian is a role model for young people.

As you can see in this example, the conclusion is logically valid — but is it true? You can
challenge the conclusion by challenging the major premise — that is, whether all celebri-
ties are role models for young people.

Classical Argument
Classical rhetoricians outlined a five-part structure for an oratory, or speech, that writ-
ers still use today to develop their lines of reasoning, although perhaps not always
consciously. We refer to this structure as the classical argument:

• The introduction (exordium) introduces the reader to the subject under discussion.
Whether it is a single paragraph or several, the introduction draws the readers into
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