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persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating. The
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key component of the Rogerian approach is finding common ground on which the
speaker and an audience that holds opposing beliefs can both stand. The speaker
must show that he or she has everyone’s interest in mind, and thus be sympathetic to
the audience’s point of view. Ultimately, the goal is not necessarily to win the argu-
Argument
ment, but to reach a compromise through which both speaker and audience will feel
that they have gained ground.

The Toulmin Model

A useful way of both analyzing and structuring an argument is through the Toulmin model,
an approach to argument created by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin in his book The
Uses of Argument (1958). The Toulmin model is an effective tool in uncovering the assump-
tions that underlie arguments. Although this method — particularly its terminology — may
seem complicated at first, it is actually very practical because it helps with analysis, struc-
turing, qualifying a thesis, and understanding abstract arguments. Once mastered, it can
be a very powerful tool.
The Toulmin model has six elements: claim, evidence (support), warrant (the assump-
tion), backing, qualifier, and reservation. We have already discussed claims, which are
arguable assertions. Toulmin defined a claim as “a conclusion whose merits we are
seeking to establish.” You have also already learned about support or evidence.
A warrant expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audi-
ence. Similar to the minor premise of a syllogism, the assumption links the claim to the
evidence; in other words, if the speaker and audience do not share the same assumption
regarding the claim, all the evidence in the world won’t be enough to sway them.
Backing consists of further assurances or data without which the assumption lacks
authority. The qualifier, when used (for example, usually, probably, maybe, in most
cases, most likely), tempers the claim a bit, making it less absolute. The reservation
explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier. In many cases, the argu-
ment will contain a rebuttal that gives voice to objections.
The following diagram illustrates the Toulmin model at work:

Evidence Claim

Assumption Qualifier Reservation

Backing

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