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xviii%u2026AP%u00ae skill building Opportunities for critical thinking Subject to Debate provides you with opportunities to think critically about all sides of an issue when investigating current controversies in Human Geography. seasonal migration, p. 207 sex ratio, p. 124 Snow Belt, p. 107 social mobility, p. 192 social network, p. 198 spatial mobility, p. 192 step migration, p. 206 Sunbelt, p. 107 total fertility rate (TFR), p. 135 transhumance, p. 208 transitional birth rate, p. 134 transnational migration, p. 204 voluntary migration, p. 203 women%u2019s empowerment, p. 172 women%u2019s status, p. 172 youth dependency ratio, p. 120 zero population growth (ZPG), p. 139 Seeing Geography Zhang Peng/Getty ImagesPreparing for the AP%u00ae ExamAging MahjongIn the industrial city of Luoyang, Henan, China, elderly residents are engaged in a game of mahjong, an enduring symbol of cultural tradition in one of the country%u2019s oldest cities. This image represents more than just recreation; it also suggests the demographic transition that China experiences. With over 200 million people over 60, China%u2019s age structure is pivoting towards a graying population, raising critical questions about urban sustainability and a country%u2019s ability to adequately provide amenities and social safety nets to this growing age cohort. Taking care of its aging population is incredibly important for a society that values filial piety, a deep respect for one%u2019s elders and ancestors. This scene is fitting for one of the city%u2019s most famous residents, Lao Tzu, the founder of Taoism.These public gatherings emphasize the role of maintaining cultural continuity amidst Luoyang%u2019s urban sprawl and economic surge. The seniors here are not mere onlookers, they are active participants amidst rapid urban and societal change. This scene in Luoyang invites us to examine the challenges and opportunities presented by population aging, including carrying capacity and dependency ratio. This communal interaction is a microcosm of larger scale demographic dynamics for a country that enforced antinatalist policies to control its rapidly growing population. China%u2019s demographic momentum will have impacts on its health care and pension systems, as well as its labor force. It also raises questions about ways in which public policy and urban design might adapt to this changing and growing demographic. What do you see?1. Observing the elderly engaged in mahjong, what does this social practice reveal about the cultural norms and values related to aging in Luoyang?2. How do you anticipate that Luoyang%u2019s urban design and amenities will need to change in order to support its aging demographic?3. Considering China%u2019s historical population policies, what implications and considerations might the scene suggest before its government makes any future policy developments?4. What do you see in the image that suggests the economic impact of an aging workforce on Luoyang%u2019s development?5. Can you think of any benefits that an aging population brings to its society?Targeting Task Verbs:6. Compare the ways in which less developed countries might meet the needs of an aging population in relation to more developed countries. Unit 2 Review 225Discussion-based photo exploration The Seeing Geography feature will likely be discussed in class, as you are asked to analyze the geographical patterns and trends found in photos. Reflect on the What do you see? questions for further processing. 58 Unit 1 Thinking GeographicallyOne of today%u2019s most important and vexing scientific and political issues is global climate change %u2014 both grasping its causes and deciding what policies to pursue to lessen its effects. It%u2019s also an issue that human geographers, with their emphasis on understanding nature%u2013culture relationships, are well prepared to discuss. Earth%u2019s temperatures are rising. Since the late nineteenth century, the surface temperature of Earth has risen 2%u00baF, with the greatest increase occurring since 1978. According to the UN, 2023 was the hottest year on record, continuing a long-term warming trend due to human activities. Global climate, of course, is always changing. What is critical today, however, is the degree to which scientists have been able to correlate global warming trends with the rise in the levels of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in the atmosphere. Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric CO 2 levels have risen dramatically, and today they are higher than they have been in over 500,000 years. Carbon dioxide is one of several greenhouse gases that keep radiative energy from the sun (and therefore warmth) trapped in Earth%u2019s lower atmosphere. Greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere but are also released when fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas are burned. Changes in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, therefore, lead to changes in Earth%u2019s temperature. Changes in temperature, in turn, lead to other changes in the environment, such as melting glaciers, droughts, an increase in extreme weather events, and rising sea levels. For example, Phoenix, Arizona, saw 31 straight days at or exceeding 110 degrees Fahrenheit in 2023. And parts of Europe saw multiple weeks of blistering heat that rolled across the region for an exhausting four months, as firefighters battled blazes in Croatia, Switzerland, and Greece. On about a third of days in 2023, the average global temperature was at least 1.5 degrees Celsius higher than preindustrial levels. Staying below that marker long-term is widely considered crucial to avoid the most damaging impacts of climate change. To what degree are our activities %u2014 particularly our energy demands that lead to the burning of fossil fuels %u2014 responsible for this climate change? This is where the real debate starts and where culture and politics can obscure scientific facts. A very few scientists are wary of pointing the finger at carbon dioxide emissions as the primary culprit, arguing that other factors or atmospheric changes are impacting Earth%u2019s climate. A%u00a0few are critical of the data that show increases in surface temperature. And a tiny minority believe that the recent fluctuation in climate is a natural occurrence rather than human induced. Nevertheless, there is growing worldwide consensus that human activities are the primary factors responsible SUBJECT TO DEBATE Human Activities and Global Climate Change Nonrenewable resources are available on Earth in finite quantities. When they are used up, nature cannot renew them. One important nonrenewable resource is natural gas, which has become a very popular source of electricity in the United States. Natural gas is considered to be TERMS TO KNOW nonrenewable resources: Natural resources that are available on Earth in finite quantities and will eventually be used up a much more environmentally friendly fossil fuel than oil and coal when it is refined and burned. Another nonrenewable energy source is oil. Many experts believe that oil is the most exploited nonrenewable resource and that Earth will run out of it within the next 50 years. They also believe that coal, a significant pollutant that is used to generate electricity, will run out within the next 100 years. Natural gas, oil, and coal are all fossil fuels , which means they were formed from the remains of living organisms. They are major pollutants, but they are very cheap sources of energy, which explains their popularity. human geographers, with their emphasis on understanding nature%u2013culture relationships, are well prepared to Earth%u2019s temperatures are rising. Since the late nineteenth century, the surface temperature of Earth has risen 2%u00baF, with the greatest increase occurring since 1978. According to the UN, 2023 was the hottest year on record, continuing a long-term warming trend due to human activities. Global climate, of course, is always changing. What is critical today, however, is the degree to which scientists have been able to correlate global warming trends with the rise in the levels of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in the atmosphere. Since the start of the Industrial Revolu- levels have risen dramatically, and today they are higher than they have been in over 500,000 years. Carbon dioxide is one of several greenhouse gases that keep radiative energy from the sun (and therefore warmth) trapped in Earth%u2019s lower atmosphere. Greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere but are also released when fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas are burned. Changes in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, therefore, lead to changes in Earth%u2019s temperature. Changes in temperature, in turn, lead to other or exceeding 110 degrees Fahrenheit in 2023. And parts of Europe saw multiple weeks of blistering heat that rolled across the region for an exhausting four months, as firefighters battled blazes in Croatia, Switzerland, and Greece. On about a third of days in 2023, the average global temperature was at least 1.5 degrees Celsius higher than preindustrial levels. Staying below that marker long-term is widely considered crucial to avoid the most damaging impacts of climate change. To what degree are our activities %u2014 particularly our energy demands that lead to the burning of fossil fuels %u2014 responsible for this climate change? This is where the real debate starts and where culture and politics can obscure scientific facts. A very few scientists are wary of pointing the finger at carbon dioxide emissions as the primary culprit, arguing that other factors or atmospheric changes are impacting Earth%u2019s climate. A%u00a0few are critical of the data that show increases in surface temperature. And a tiny minority believe that the recent fluctuation in climate is a natural occurrence rather than human induced. Nevertheless, there is growing worldwide consensus that human activities are the primary factors responsible Module 4 Human-Environmental Interaction 59Preparing for the AP%u00ae Examfor recent global warming. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a group of scientists from many different countries, concluded that because of increased greenhouse gases, average global temperatures are likely to rise between 2.5%u00b0F and 10.4%u00b0F above 1990 levels by 2100. During their annual climate week summit in September 2023, the IPCC confirmed that without immediate action to reduce emissions and adapt to continued warming, threats to planetary health and human systems are inevitable. The question, then, is not whether the climate is warming, but what to do about it. The first step, scientists argue, is to find ways to decrease levels of carbon dioxide released by looking to new technologies and alternative energy sources. Yet, at the same time, we must deal with the effects of global warming that are already occurring. Geography is a discipline well suited to confronting global warming effects because, as we have seen, one of its primary activities is to understand nature%u2013culture relationships. Valued cultural landscapes, cities, and farmlands will all be affected, and human geographers will no doubt be on the front lines of mitigating those effects. Continuing the Debate As geographers, we know that various cultures interact with the environment differently and have varied beliefs and ideas about the role of science in explaining physical phenomena. Keeping all this in mind, consider these questions: %u2022 How might such cultural differences affect people%u2019s conclusions about the causes and effects of global climate change? %u2022 How are your ideas about global climate change affected by your position in the world? Why is Earth%u2019s climate warming? As our dependence on fossil fuel combustion has grown, atmospheric carbon dioxide and global temperatures have risen in tandem. georgeclerk/Getty Images TERMS TO KNOW renewable resources: Natural resources that Earth will naturally replenish over time Unlike nonrenewable resources, renewable resources are plentiful, and Earth will naturally replenish them over time. These resources include the sun (for solar AP %u00ae Exam Tip All use of natural resources involves humanenvironmental interactions with positive and negative impacts for various groups. To evaluate the environmental impact of any practice, you will need to analyze the practice at various scales and assess consequences for different groups. energy), wind (for wind energy), water (for hydroelectric power), and Earth%u2019s interior (for geothermal energy). Many countries, including Iceland, Sweden, Denmark, and Guatemala, promote policies and incentives for industry and private citizens to use more of these renewable resources for energy production. The AP%u00ae Skills Workshops at the ends of the first five Units will help you hone and practice the skills necessary to increase your score on the AP%u00ae exam. A bonus Task Verbs Workshop can be found after Module 0. 234 Unit 2 Population and Migration%u00a0Patterns and%u00a0ProcessesAP %u00ae Skills Workshop1950PercentYear100203040502000 202129.8%Projections2050 2100Share of populations ages 65 and olderSouth KoreaChinaJapanUnitedWorld StatesFigure 2(a) Shares of population ages 65 and older. continuedData Analysis Defining Data Analysis The data analysis skill requires you to analyze and interpret numerical data that may be represented in tables, charts, maps, or other ways. You may need to identify and describe changes over time (e.g., growth or decline) or across space (e.g., geographic patterns) in the data, or explain the meanings of different numerical indicators and the relationships between them. Sometimes the questions may also require you to do some simple calculations based on geographic principles or theories before you can answer them. We will illustrate these skills using examples in the next section. Data analysis: With maps, tables, charts, and other graphs, you will need to analyze and interpret representations of quantitative (numerical) data. Understanding Data Analysis Below we illustrate the specific data analysis skills that students need to develop in the AP %u00ae Human Geography course. Identify and Describe Trends and%u00a0Patterns Being able to read and interpret numerical data presented in various ways is a basic but important skill. By looking at how the magnitude of a numerical indicator changes over time or from one country or region to another, you can identify and explain trends or geographical patterns in that indicator and draw meaningful conclusions. For example, Figure 2(a)depicts the changes in the share of population ages 65 and older in four countries and the world from 1950 to 2100. We can see that the share of people 65 years old and older has been increasing in all four countries and in the world as a whole, indicating the general trend of population aging, but it is projected to level off in Japan after the midpoint of this century and decrease in both China and South Korea toward the end of the century. The four countries all have a higher share of elderly people than the world as a whole. Currently, Japan is the only super-aged country (i.e., with more than 20 percent of its population ages 65 or above) but South Korea, the United States, and then China will become super-aged. South Korea Unit 2 AP%u00ae Skills Workshop 235and China are aging rapidly, with their population ages 65 and older predicted to be over 40 percent later in the century, higher than the shares in Japan and the United States. Maps are very common ways of representing numerical data. When reading maps, you want to make sure which indicator is mapped and understand the key so you can correctly interpret and describe the spatial patterns depicted on a map. Figure 2(b) is a choropleth map showing the share of population ages 65 and older by country. Countries with darker shades of color have higher shares of elderly people in their population. The map clearly shows that most developed countries, especially those in Europe, have relatively high proportions of elderly people, while developing countries tend to have smaller shares. Africa, South and Southwest Asia, and Central America stand out as major world regions with a youthful population. Analyze and Explain the Relationships Between Numerical%u00a0Indicators In many cases, data for two or more numerical indicators may be represented to test your ability to analyze and explain the relationship between them or show what the data imply or illustrate about geographic concepts or principles. You may need to apply the knowledge you have learned in this process. For example, the bar chart in Figure 2(c) depicts data for total fertility rate and women%u2019s education in selected countries. One conclusion we can draw is that the more education women have in a country, the lower the total fertility rate. The effects of women%u2019s education on fertility reduction, discussed in Module 9, are clearly borne out by this inverse relationship between the two variables. Preparing for the AP%u00ae ExamTropic of CancerArctic CircleTropic of CapricornEquatorPACIFICOCEANPACIFICOCEANATLANTICOCEANATLANTICOCEANINDIANOCEAN20%u00b0N20%u00b0S40%u00b0S40%u00b0N60%u00b0N80%u00b0N0%u00b020%u00b0N20%u00b0S40%u00b0S40%u00b0N60%u00b0N80%u00b0N0%u00b0160%u00b0W 100%u00b0W 80%u00b0W 60%u00b0W 40%u00b0W 20%u00b0W 0%u00b0 20%u00b0E 40%u00b0E 60%u00b0E 80%u00b0E 100%u00b0E 120%u00b0E 140%u00b0E 160%u00b0E 180%u00b0Tropic of CancerArctic CircleTropic of CapricornEquator0 2000 4000 miles0 2000 4000 km20%u00b0S40%u00b0S0%u00b0160%u00b0WPercent of population 65 years of age and older, 202224 and above21%u20132317%u20132013%u2013168%u2013124%u201370%u20133No data Figure 2(b) Population ages 65 and above (% of total population) in 2022. %u00a9 Bedford, Freeman & Worth Publishers. For review purposes only. Do not distribute.