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xviii TO THE STUDENT 228 PILLAR 2 Development and Learning%u2022 The neutral stimulus is the sound of the tuning fork before the dog has been conditioned. This stimulus is neutral because it does not produce a salivation response. Pavlov, of course, could have used many other stimuli%u2014bells, whistles, or even lights or touches%u2014as the neutral stimulus. None of these stimuli reflexively produce salivation. %u2022 The conditioned stimulus (CS) is the sound of the tuning fork after the dog has been conditioned, because that tone now produces the response of salivation. Notice that the tone serves as both the neutral stimulus and the conditioned stimulus at different times in the conditioning process. %u2022 The conditioned response (CR) is salivation, because salivation is now the response to the sound of the tuning fork. Notice that salivation can be either the unconditioned response or the conditioned response, depending on which stimulus led to the salivation. Now let%u2019s look at the processes in Pavlov%u2019s classical conditioning demonstration. To produce acquisition, Pavlov repeatedly sounded the tuning fork just before introducing meat into the dog%u2019s mouth. He proved acquisition had occurred by testing for a learned response: he presented the sound of the tuning fork without the meat. If the dog salivated (and it did), the salivation was a conditioned response, proving that the sound of the tuning fork had become a CS. To extinguish the classically conditioned response, Pavlov repeatedly sounded the tuning fork without the meat. The learned association between the sound of the tuning fork and the taste of meat gradually Does This Image Make You Flinch? If so, you%u2019ve been classically conditioned! Try to identify the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response for this example of conditioning. weakened under these circumstances. As the link weakened, the dog produced less and less saliva. When the salivation response had disappeared, extinction had occurred. Don Denton/Alamy Stock Photo Did the image of a balloon make you flinch? The ditidtili Forgetting and Memory Construction MODULE 19 321 Maybe it is the mysteries of memory that make it so fascinating. Our memories have tremendous power to keep the past alive%u2014but they can also deceive us ( Figure 19.6 ). Even experts experience falsely constructed memories. Famous child psychologist Jean Piaget remembered in detail an attempt to kidnap him in a park when he was a child. He had for years been grateful for his nursemaid%u2019s efforts to successfully foil the kidnapping. But as an adult, he learned that this vivid memory was false. He had constructed it from a story told by his nursemaid, who later admitted she had lied about the kidnapping attempt. We are accustomed to dealing with fact or fiction, yet memory seems to be fact and fiction, with no clear way to distinguish between the two. Should we trust our memories? Yes, but we should also be aware that they are not always reliable. Memory AccuracyWas thememoryencoded?Has thememorydecayed?Is thereinformationinterferingwith thememory?Is therea reason toremember?Are therefalselyconstructedmemorydetails?notFIGURE 19.6 Don%u2019t Always Trust Your Memory! Why aren%u2019t memories more accurate? Many factors contribute to the complicated process of memory. When you consider all that can go wrong, maybe the remarkable thing is that our memories are as accurate as they are. MAKE IT STICK! 1. Which of the following is the best analogy for memory? a. A cell phone video b. An encyclopedia c. A newspaper d. A jigsaw puzzle 2. Why are young children more likely than older children to have false memories? 3. Incorporating wrong ideas learned from others into a memory is known as the ____________ effect. Module 19 Summary and Assessment Forgetting and Memory Construction 19-1 How does encoding failure lead to forgetting?%u2022 Some information cannot be retrieved because it was not 19-2 How does storage failure lead to forgetting?%u2022 Some memories decay over time. Perception MODULE 17 281doubts about the shape of the door. You instantly realize that it%u2019s the viewing angle that has changed and not the door itself. We automatically correct for changing angles in a number of different situations. The next time you are sitting to the side when your teacher uses the projector, note that the image becomes a trapezoid. Your brain will automatically correct for the distorted angle, and you will perceive the projected images as though you were viewing the objects straight on. Shape constancy lets you make these corrections without any conscious effort. Lightness Constancy The third type of constancy, lightness constancy, gives us the ability to see an object as having a constant level of lightness no matter how the lighting conditions change ( Figure 17.11 ). If you look at a sheet of printer paper in bright sunlight, it appears blazingly white; view the same sheet in a dimly lit room, and it appears gray. Has the paper changed? Of course not. We know that the white paper stays constant no matter what the lighting conditions are. We can make this adjustment even if we are outside and reading the page of a book that is half in sunlight and half in shade. Without lightness constancy, this experience would be quite bizarre. FIGURE 17.10 Shape Constancy As a door opens, the shape you see changes from a rectangle to a trapezoid. Shape constancy ensures that, despite this, we continue to perceive the door as a rectangle. FIGURE 17.11 Lightness Constancy In this astonishing illusion, the squares numbered 1 and 2 are actually the exact same shade of gray, as MAKEITSTICK!Chris Madden/Alamy Stock PhotoFigures and graphs hold volumes of information. Study them carefully and read the captions to gain a better understanding of the content discussed on the page. See the photosfor visual context of the topics on the page. Photos are great resources to see psychology at work in the real world! EXAMINE THE FIGURES and graphs. The art is developed to support the text and to help you learn %u2026 %u00a9 Bedford, Freeman & Worth Publishers. For review purposes only. Do not distribute.