Page 24 - Demo

xxii1801760 1765 1770 1775 1780 17851763 %u2013 Pontiac%u2019s War threatens British control of the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley%u2013 Proclamation Line limits white settlement1763%u20131775 The trans-Appalachian west attracts the interest of settlers and investors1764 Sugar Act and Currency Act1765 %u2013 Stamp Act imposes direct tax%u2013 Stamp Act Congress meets%u2013 Americans boycott British goods1765%u20131780 The idea of natural rights challenges the institution of chattel slavery1766 %u2013 First compromise: Stamp Act repealed%u2013 Declaratory Act passed1767 Townshend duties1768 Second American boycott1770 %u2013 Second compromise: partial repeal of Townshend Act%u2013 Boston Massacre1770%u20131781 Native Americans in the Ohio country resist Anglo-American expansion1772 Committees of correspondence form1773 Tea Act leads to Boston Tea Party1774 %u2013 Coercive Acts punish Massachusetts%u2013 Dunmore%u2019s War against the Shawnees%u2013 Continental Congress meets%u2013 Third American boycott1775 %u2013 General Gage marches to Lexington and Concord%u2013 Second Continental Congress creates Continental army%u2013 Lord Dunmore recruits servants and enslaved people to defend the British Empire%u2013 Patriots invade Canada and skirmish with Loyalists in South%u2013 Western settlers occupy Kentucky1776 %u2013 Thomas Paine%u2019s Common Sense%u2013 Declaration of IndependenceCHAPTER TIMELINE An Empire Transformed What changes in Britain%u2019s imperial policy were triggered by its victory in the Great War for Empire? The war that began as the French and Indian War in 1754 and culminated in the Great War for Empire of 1756%u20131763 transformed the British Empire in North America. The British ministry could no longer let the colonies manage their own affairs while it minimally oversaw Atlantic trade. Its interests and responsibilities now extended far into the continental interior %u2014 a much more costly and complicated proposition than it had ever faced before. And neither its American colonies nor their Native American neighbors were inclined to cooperate in the transformation. British administrators worried about their American colonists, who, according to former Georgia governor Henry Ellis, felt themselves %u201centitled to a greater measure of Liberty than is enjoyed by the people of England.%u201d Ireland had been closely ruled for decades, and recently the East India Company set up dominion over millions of nonBritish peoples ( Map 5.1 ). Britain%u2019s American possessions were likewise filled with non-English people: %u201cFrench, Dutch, Germans innumerable, Indians, Africans, and a multitude of felons from this country,%u201d as one member of Parliament put it. Consequently, declared Lord Halifax, %u201cthe people of England%u201d considered Americans %u201cas foreigners.%u201d exam tip Identifying the reasons for changes in British policies toward colonies after the French and Indian War is critical for the AP %u00ae exam. As Pacific Coast Democrats whipped up anti-immigrant fervor, Republicans in the West warned their party%u2019s leaders that they had to act. Facing intense political pressure, Congress first passed the 1875 Page Act, which barred the importation of women for sex work; in practice, the law was largely used to exclude Chinese women, including married women and prospective brides seeking to join husbands in the United States. The far more sweeping Chinese Exclusion Act passed in 1882. It specifically barred Chinese laborers from entering the United States. Each decade thereafter, Congress renewed the law and tightened its provisions; it was not repealed until 1943, while U.S. and Chinese soldiers fought together against Japan in World War II. Asian immigrants made vigorous use of the courts to try to protect their rights. In a series of cases brought by Chinese and later Japanese immigrants, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that all persons born in the United States had citizenship rights that could not be revoked, even if their parents had been born abroad. Nonetheless, well into the twentieth century, Chinese immigrants (as opposed to native-born Chinese Americans) could not apply for citizenship. Meanwhile, Japanese and a few Korean immigrants also began to arrive; by 1909, there were 40,000 Japanese immigrants working in agriculture, 10,000 on railroads, and 4,000 in canneries. In 1906, the U.S. attorney general ruled that Japanese and Koreans, like Chinese immigrants, were barred from citizenship. The Chinese Exclusion Act created the legal foundations on which far-reaching exclusionary policies would be built in the 1920s and after (see %u201cCulture Wars%u201d in Chapter 21 ). To enforce the law, Congress and the courts gave broad new powers to immigration officials, transforming the Chinese into America%u2019s first %u201cillegal immigrants.%u201d Drawn, like others, by the promise of jobs in America%u2019s expanding economy, Chinese men stowed away on ships or walked across the borders. Disguising themselves as Mexicans %u2014 who at that time could freely enter the United States %u2014 some perished in the desert as they tried to reach Arizona or California. Other would-be immigrants, known as paper sons, relied on Chinese residents in the United States, who generated documents falsely claiming the newcomers as American-born children. To satisfy questions from immigration officials, paper sons memorized pages of information about their supposed relatives and hometowns. The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 helped their cause by destroying all the port%u2019s records. %u201cThat was a big chance for a lot of Chinese,%u201d remembered one immigrant. %u201cThey forged themselves certificates saying they could go back to China and bring back four or five sons, just like that!%u201d Such persistence ensured that, despite the harsh policies of Chinese exclusion, the flow of Asian immigrants never fully ceased. Labor Gets Organized How did working people organize to protect their interests in this period, and why and how did their strategies change between 1877 and%u00a01900? In the American political system, labor has typically been weak. Industrial workers cluster in cities, near factories and jobs; compared with small towns and rural areas, urban areas have been underrepresented in bodies such as the U.S. Senate and the presidential electoral college, where representation is based on, or weighted by, state. This problem became acute in the era of industrialization, and it has lingered. Even today, the twenty-two U.S. senators elected from Alaska, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Mississippi, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota, Vermont, West Virginia, and ct that barred Chinese e United States. an immigrants as until 1943. esses ON ed for tions and rants in 1779 1783 1787 1791 17951776 %u2013 Second Continental Congress declares independence %u2013 Howe forces Washington to retreat from New York and New Jersey %u2013 John Adams publishes Thoughts on Government1777 %u2013 Articles of Confederation approved by Congress %u2013 Howe occupies Philadelphia (September) %u2013 Gates defeats Burgoyne at Saratoga (October) 1778 %u2013 Franco-American alliance (February) %u2013 Lord North seeks political settlement %u2013 British adopt southern strategy %u2013 British capture Savannah (December) 1779 British and American forces battle in Georgia 1780 %u2013 Clinton seizes Charleston (May) %u2013 French troops land in Rhode Island 1781 %u2013 Cornwallis invades Virginia (April), surrenders at Yorktown (October) %u2013 States finally ratify Articles of Confederation 1783 Treaty of Paris (September 3) officially ends war 1786 %u2013 Nationalists hold convention in Annapolis, Maryland %u2013 Shays%u2019s Rebellion roils Massachusetts 1787 %u2013 Congress passes Northwest Ordinance %u2013 Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia 1784%u20131785 Congress enacts political and land ordinances for new states 1776%u20131780 The states draft and ratify new constitutions to replace colonial charters 1787%u20131788 %u2013 Jay, Madison, and Hamilton write The Federalist%u2013 Eleven states ratify U.S. Constitution APTER TIMELINE The Trials of War, 1776%u20131778 What challenges did Patriot forces confront in the first two years of the war, and what were their key achievements? The Declaration of Independence appeared just as the British launched a full-scale military assault. For two years, British troops manhandled the Continental army. A few inspiring American victories kept the rebellion alive, but during the winters of 1776 and 1777, the Patriot cause hung in the balance. War in the North Once the British resorted to military force, few Europeans gave the rebels a chance. The population of Great Britain was 11 million; the colonies, 2.5 million, 20 percent of whom were enslaved people of African descent. Moreover, the British government had access to the immense wealth generated by the South Atlantic System and the emerging Industrial Revolution. Britain also had the most powerful navy in the world, a standing army of 48,000 Britons plus 30,000 German (mostly Hessian) soldiers, and the support of thousands of American Loyalists and powerful Native American coalitions. In the Carolinas, the Cherokees resisted colonists%u2019 demands for their lands by allying with the British, as did four of the six Haudenosaunee nations of New York ( Map 6.1 ). In the Ohio country, Shawnees and their allies, armed by the British, attacked the new Kentucky settlements. By contrast, the Americans were economically and militarily weak. They lacked a strong central government and a reliable source of tax revenue. Their new Continental army, commanded by General George Washington, consisted of 18,000 poorly trained and inexperienced recruits. Brant Mohawk chief egea, known to whites as Joseph a devout member of the Church and helped to translate the Bible ohawk language. Brant persuaded six Haudenosaunee nations to itain in the war. He received a ommission in the British army and nosaunee warriors and Loyalist devastating attacks on American ts in the Wyoming Valley of nia and Cherry Valley in New the war, he was instrumental in Mohawks and other British-allied ericans on the Grand River in nada. Brant was depicted many ainters and sculptors. In this 1786 ainted during one of his trips to ilbert Stuart depicts his hybrid d captures a haunting sense of y. VCG Wilson/Corbis/Getty Images. CHAPTER 2 American Experiments, 1521%u20131700 49A New American World After Cort%u00e9s toppled Moctezuma and Pizarro defeated Atahualpa (see Chapter 1 ), leading conquistadors received encomiendas from the crown, which allowed them to claim tribute in labor and goods from Indigenous communities. Later these grants were repartitioned, but the pattern was set early: prominent men controlled vast resources and monopolized Indigenous labor. The value of these grants was dramatically enhanced by the discovery of gold and, especially, silver deposits in both Mexico and the Andes. In the decades after the conquest, mines were developed in Zacatecas, in Guanajuato, and %u2014 most famously %u2014 at Potos%u00ed, high in the Andes. There, Spanish officials co-opted the mita system, which had made laborers available to the Inca empire, to force Indigenous workers into the mines. At its peak, Potos%u00ed alone produced 200 tons of silver per year, accounting for half the world%u2019s supply. The two great Indigenous empires of the Americas thus became the core of an astonishingly wealthy European empire. Vast amounts of silver poured across the Pacific Ocean to China, where it was minted into money; in exchange, Spain received valuable Chinese silks, spices, and ceramics. In Europe, the gold that had formerly honored Aztec and Inca gods now flowed into the countinghouses of Spain and gilded the Catholic churches of Europe. The Spanish crown benefitted enormously from all this wealth %u2014 at least initially. In the long run, it triggered ruinous inflation. As a French traveler noted in 1603, %u201cEverything is dear [expensive] in Spain, except%u00a0silver.%u201d A new society took shape on the conquered lands. Between 1500 and 1650, at least 350,000 Spaniards migrated, most to Mesoamerica and the Andes. About twothirds were males drawn from a cross section of Spanish society, many of them skilled tradesmen; the other one-third were female. Also arriving were 250,000 to 300,000 enslaved Africans. As a result, many multiracial individuals eventually populated the colonies. Over time, colonial elites developed a system of increasingly complex racial categories %u2014 the casta system %u2014 that was buttressed by a legal code that differentiated among the principal groups. Native Americans were always in the majority in Mexico and Peru, but profound changes came as their numbers declined and peoples of Spanish and multiracial descent grew in number. Spaniards initially congregated in cities, but gradually they moved into the countryside, creating large estates (known as haciendas) and regional networksofmarketexchangeMostIndigenouspeopleremainedintheirNativeencomienda A grant of Indigenous labor in Spanish America given in the sixteenth century by the Spanish kings to prominent men. Encomenderos extracted tribute from Native American communities in exchange for granting them protection and Christian instruction. casta system A hierarchical system of racial classification developed by colonial elites in Latin America to make sense of the complex multiracial patterns that developed there. 242 PART 3 REVOLUTION AND REPUBLICAN CULTURE, 1754%u20131800that congressional legislation was the %u201csupreme%u201d law of the land. It gave the new government the power to tax, raise an army and a navy, and regulate foreign and interstate commerce, with the authority to make all laws %u201cnecessary and proper%u201d to implement those and other provisions. To assist creditors and establish the new government%u2019s fiscal integrity, the Constitution required the United States to honor the existing national debt and prohibited the states from issuing paper money or enacting %u201cany Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts.%u201d The proposed constitution was not a %u201cperfect production,%u201d Benjamin Franklin admitted, as he urged the delegates to sign it in September 1787. But the great statesman confessed his astonishment at finding %u201cthis system approaching so near to perfection.%u201d His colleagues apparently agreed; all but three signed the document. The People Debate Ratification The procedure for ratifying the new constitution was as controversial as its contents. Knowing that Rhode Island (and perhaps other states) would reject it, the delegates did not submit the Constitution to the state legislatures for their unanimous consent, as required by the Articles of Confederation. Instead, they arbitrarily %u2014 and cleverly %u2014 declared that it would take effect when ratified by conventions in nine of the thirteen states. Moreover, they insisted that the conventions could only approve or disapprove the plan; they could not suggest alterations. As George Mason put it, the conventions would %u201ctake this or take nothing.%u201d As the constitutional debate began in the fall of 1787, the nationalists seized the initiative with two bold moves. First, they called themselves Federalists , suggesting that they supported a federal union %u2014 a loose, decentralized system %u2014 and obscuring their commitment to a strong national government. Second, they launched a coordinated campaign in pamphlets and newspapers to explain and justify the Philadelphia constitution. The Antifederalists The opponents of the Constitution, called by default the Antifederalists , had diverse backgrounds and motives. Some, like Governor George Clinton of New York, feared that state governments would lose power. Rural democrats protested that the proposed document, unlike most state constitutions, lacked a declaration of individual rights; they also feared that the central government would be run by wealthy men. %u201cLawyers and men of learning and monied men expect to be managers of this Constitution,%u201d worried a Massachusetts farmer. %u201cThey will swallow up all of us little folks . . . just as the whale swallowed up Jonah.%u201d Giving political substance to these fears, Melancton Smith of New York argued that the large electoral districts prescribed by the Constitution would restrict office holding to wealthy men, whereas the smaller districts used in state elections usually produced legislatures %u201ccomposed principally of respectable yeomanry.%u201d John Quincy Adams agreed: if only %u201c eight men%u201d would represent Massachusetts, %u201cthey will infallibly be chosen from the aristocratic part of the community.%u201d Smith summed up the views of Americans who held traditional republican values. To keep government %u201cclose to the people,%u201d they wanted the states to remain small sovereign republics tied together only for trade and defense %u2014 not the %u201cUnited States%u201d but the %u201cStates United.%u201d Citing the French political philosopher Montesquieu, Antifederalistsarguedthatrepublicaninstitutionswerebestsuitedtosmallpolskills & processes DEVELOPMENTS AND PROCESSES How did the Constitution, in its final form, differ from the plan originally proposed by James Madison? Federalists Supporters of the Constitution of 1787, which created a strong central government; their opponents, the Antifederalists, feared that a strong central government would corrupt the nation%u2019s newly won liberty. Antifederalists Opponents of ratification of the Constitution. Antifederalists feared that a powerful and distant central government would be out of touch with the needs of citizens. They also complained that it failed to guarantee individual liberties in a bill of rights. Chapter Features Contextualize Important Course Concepts, Developments, and Processes Chapter TimelinesChapter timelines provide a sense of where we are in history, breaking down key events from the time period and clarifying the connections between developments. Critical Thinking QuestionsCritical thinking questions accompanying the major headings prompt active reading and act as a guide to the most important takeaways throughout the chapters. Running GlossaryA running glossary across the entire book provides students with academic and historical definitions at point of use to ensure complete comprehension of the material. 1760 1765 17701770%u201317812161775 1779 1783 1787 1791 17951776 %u2013 Second Continental Congress declares independence %u2013 Howe forces Washington to retreat from New York and New Jersey %u2013 John Adams publishes Thoughts on Government1777 %u2013 Articles of Confederation approved by Congress %u2013 Howe occupies Philadelphia (September) %u2013 Gates defeats Burgoyne at Saratoga (October) 1778 %u2013 Franco-American alliance (February) %u2013 Lord North seeks political settlement %u2013 British adopt southern strategy %u2013 British capture Savannah (December) 1779 British and American forces battle in Georgia 1780 %u2013 Clinton seizes Charleston (May) %u2013 French troops land in Rhode Island 1781 %u2013 Cornwallis invades Virginia (April), surrenders at Yorktown (October) %u2013 States finally ratify Articles of Confederation 1783 Treaty of Paris (September 3) officially ends war 1786 %u2013 Nationalists hold convention in Annapolis, Maryland %u2013 Shays%u2019s Rebellion roils Massachusetts 1787 %u2013 Congress passes Northwest Ordinance %u2013 Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia 1784%u20131785 Congress enacts political and land ordinances for new states 1776%u20131780 The states draft and ratify new constitutions to replace colonial charters 1787%u20131788 %u2013 Jay, Madison, and Hamilton write The Federalist%u2013 Eleven states ratify U.S. Constitution CHAPTER TIMELINE The Trials of War, 1776%u20131778 What challenges did Patriot forces confront in the first two years of the war, and what were their key achievements? The Declaration of Independence appeared just as the British launched a full-scale military assault. For two years, British troops manhandled the Continental army. A few inspiring American victories kept the rebellion alive, but during the winters of 1776 and 1777, the Patriot cause hung in the balance. War in the North Once the British resorted to military force, few Europeans gave the rebels a chance. The population of Great Britain was 11 million; the colonies, 2.5 million, 20 percent of whom were enslaved people of African descent. Moreover, the British government had access to the immense wealth generated by the South Atlantic System and the emerging Industrial Revolution. Britain also had the most powerful navy in the world, a standing army of 48,000 Britons plus 30,000 German (mostly Hessian) soldiers, and the support of thousands of American Loyalists and powerful Native American coalitions. In the Carolinas, the Cherokees resisted colonists%u2019 demands for their lands by allying with the British, as did four of the six Haudenosaunee nations of New York ( Map 6.1 ). In the Ohio country, Shawnees and their allies, armed by the British, attacked the new Kentucky settlements. By contrast, the Americans were economically and militarily weak. They lacked a strong central government and a reliable source of tax revenue. Their new Continental army, commanded by General George Washington, consisted of 18,000 poorly trained and inexperienced recruits. Joseph Brant Mohawk chief Thayendanegea, known to whites as Joseph Brant, was a devout member of the Church of England and helped to translate the Bible into the Mohawk language. Brant persuaded four of the six Haudenosaunee nations to support Britain in the war. He received a captain%u2019s commission in the British army and led Haudenosaunee warriors and Loyalist rangers in devastating attacks on American settlements in the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania and Cherry Valley in New York. After the war, he was instrumental in resettling Mohawks and other British-allied Native Americans on the Grand River in Ontario, Canada. Brant was depicted many times by painters and sculptors. In this 1786 portrait, painted during one of his trips to England, Gilbert Stuart depicts his hybrid identity and captures a haunting sense of melancholy. VCG Wilson/Corbis/Getty Images. %u00a9 Bedford, Freeman & Worth Publishers. For review purposes only. Do not distribute.